The coconut (Cocos nucifera) is an important member of the family Arecaceae (palm family). It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos,[2] and is a large palm, growing to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long, and pinnae 60–90 cm long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the trunk smooth. The term coconut refers to the seed of the coconut palm, which is not actually a nut. The spelling cocoanut is an old-fashioned form of the word.[3]
The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for decoration, as well as for its many culinary and non-culinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm can be utilized by humans in some manner. In cooler climates (but not less than USDA Zone 9), a similar palm, the queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana), is used in landscaping. Its fruits are very similar to the coconut, but much smaller. The queen palm was originally classified in the genus Cocos along with the coconut, but was later reclassified in Syagrus. A recently discovered palm, Beccariophoenix alfredii from Madagascar, is nearly identical to the coconut, and more so than the queen palm. It is cold-hardy, and produces a coconut lookalike in cooler areas.[citation needed]
The coconut has spread across much of the tropics, probably aided in many cases by seafaring people. Coconut fruit in the wild is light, buoyant and highly water resistant, and evolved to disperse significant distances via marine currents.[4] Fruit collected from the sea as far north as Norway are viable.[citation needed] In the Hawaiian Islands, the coconut is regarded as a Polynesian introduction, first brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers from their homelands in Oceania. They are now almost ubiquitous between 26°N and 26°S except for the interiors of Africa and South America.
The flowers of the coconut palm are polygamomonoecious, with both male and female flowers in the same inflorescence. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although some[which?] dwarf varieties are self-pollinating. The ``nut`` of the coconut is the edible endosperm, located on the inner surface of the shell. Inside the endosperm layer, coconuts contain an edible clear liquid that is sweet, salty, or both.
Coconuts received the name from Portuguese explorers, the sailors of Vasco da Gama in India, who first brought them to Europe. The brown and hairy surface of coconuts reminded them of a ghost or witch called Coco.[5] Before it was called nux indica, name given by Marco Polo in 1280 while in Sumatra, name taken from the Arabs who called it jauz-al-Hindi. When coconuts arrived in England, they retained the coco name and nut was added.
//The origins of this plant are the subject of debate.[citation needed]
Most authorities claiming it is native to South Asia (particularly the Ganges Delta), while others claim its origin is in northwestern South America. Fossil records from New Zealand indicate that small, coconut-like plants grew there as long as 15 million years ago. Even older fossils have been uncovered in Karnataka, Rajasthan, Thennai in Kerala on the banks of River Palar, Then-pennai, Thamirabharani, Cauvery and Mountain sides at Kerala borders, Konaseema-Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra (India) The oldest known so far in Khulna, Bangladesh. Mention is made of coconuts in the 2nd–1st centuries BC in the Mahawamsa of Sri Lanka. The later Culawamsa states that King Aggabodhi I (575–608) planted a coconut garden of 3 yojanas length, possibly the earliest recorded coconut plantation.Etymology
The OED states: ``Portuguese and Spanish authors of the 16th c. agree in identifying the word with Portuguese and Spanish coco 'grinning face, grin, grimace', also 'bugbear, scarecrow', cognate with cocar 'to grin, make a grimace'; the name being said to refer to the face-like appearance of the base of the shell, with its three holes. Historical evidence favours the European origin of the name, for there is nothing similar in any of the languages of India, where the Portuguese first found the fruit; and indeed Barbosa, Barros, and Garcia, in mentioning the Malayalam name tenga, and Canarese narle, expressly say 'we call these fruits quoquos', 'our people have given it the name of coco', 'that which we call coco, and the Malabars temga'.``
The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of salinity. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (150 cm to 250 cm annually), which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward.[6] Coconuts also need high humidity (70–80%+) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity, like the Mediterranean, even where temperatures are high enough (regularly above 24°C or 75.2°F).
Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of cold weather. Optimum growth is with a mean annual temperature of 27 °C (81 °F), and growth is reduced below 21 °C (70 °F). Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with good growth where mean summer temperatures are between 28–37 °C (82–99 °F), and survival as long as winter temperatures are above 4–12 °C (39–54 °F); they will survive brief drops to 0 °C (32 °F). Severe frost is usually fatal, although they have been known to recover from temperatures of −4 °C (24.8 °F).[6] They may grow but not fruit properly in areas where there is not sufficient warmth, like Bermuda.
The conditions required for coconut trees to grow without any care are:
mean daily temperature above 12-13 °C every day of the year 50 year low temperature above freezing mean yearly rainfall above 1000 mm no or very little overhead canopy, since even small trees require a lot of sunThe main limiting factor is that most locations which satisfy the first three requirements do not satisfy the fourth, except near the coast where the sandy soil and salt spray limit the growth of most other trees (Palmtalk[7]).
The range of the natural habitat of the coconut palm tree is delineated by the red line in map C1 to the right (based on information in Werth 1933,[8] slightly modified by Niklas Jonsson).
Coconut trees are very hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed.[6]
Coconut palms are grown in more than 80 countries of the world, with a total production of 49 billion coconuts. The 2007 shares of coconut growing countries in production were: Indonesia (26%), Philippines (23%), India (23%), Sri Lanka (4.4%), other countries (24%). The productivity of the crop is the highest in India with 7572 coconuts/ha.
Top ten coconuts producers — 11 June 2008 Country Production (tonnes) Footnote Philippines 17000000 * Indonesia 15580000 P India 9400000 F Brazil 2770554 Thailand 1705446 Vietnam 962000 F Sri Lanka 954000 Papua New Guinea 677000 F Malaysia 568000 F Myanmar 370000 F World 54716444 A No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official or estimates);Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division
Coconut and copra output in 2005In some parts of the world (Thailand and Malaysia), trained pig-tailed macaques are used to harvest coconuts. Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist both in southern Thailand, and in the Malaysian state of Kelantan.[9] Competitions are held each year to find the fastest harvester.
Coconuts are susceptible to the phytoplasma disease Lethal Yellowing. One recently selected cultivar, 'Maypan', has been bred for resistance to this disease.
The coconut palm is damaged by the larvae of many Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species which feed on it, including Batrachedra spp: B. arenosella, B. atriloqua (feeds exclusively on Cocos nucifera), B. mathesoni (feeds exclusively on Cocos nucifera), and B. nuciferae.
Brontispa longissima (the ``coconut leaf beetle``) feeds on young leaves and damages seedlings and mature coconut palms. On September 27, 2007, Philippines' Metro Manila and 26 provinces were quarantined due to having been infested with this pest (to save the $800-million Philippine coconut industry).[10]
The fruit may also be damaged by eriophyid coconut mites (Eriophyes guerreronis). This insect infests coconut plantations, and is devastating: it can destroy up to 90% of coconut production. The immature nuts are infested and desapped by larvae staying in the portion covered by the perianth of the immature nut; the nuts then drop off or survive deformed. Spraying with wettable sulfur 0.4% or with neem-based pesticides can give some relief, but is cumbersome and labour intensive.
In Kerala the main pests of coconut are the coconut mite, the rhinoceros beetle, the red Palm weevil and the coconut leaf caterpillar. Research on this topic has as of 2009[update] produced no results, and researchers from the Kerala Agricultural University and the Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Kasaragode are still searching for a cure. The Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has developed an innovative extension approach called Compact area group approach (CAGA) to combat coconut mites.
Traditional areas of coconut cultivation in India are the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Pondicherry, Maharashtra and Islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar.
Kerala is the largest coconut growing state in India, and is famous for the most tender coconuts in India.[citation needed] They are also famous for the coconut-based products like tender coconut water, copra, coconut oil, coconut cake, coconut toddy, coconut shell-based products, coconut wood-based products, coconut leaves, and coir pith.
Four southern states put together account for 92% of the total production in the country (Kerala 45.22%, Tamil Nadu 26.56%, Karnataka 10.85%, Andhra Pradesh 8.93% and other states 8.44%). [11]
Coconut is cultivated mainly in the following Indian States
Kerala (All India Production 45%) Tamil Nadu (All India Production 27%) Karnataka (All India Production 11%) Andhra pradesh (All India Production 9%) Other States like Goa, Maharashtra, Orisa and West BengalThe only states in the U.S. where coconut palms can be grown and reproduced outdoors without irrigation are Hawaii and south Florida. Coconut palms will grow from coastal Pinellas County and St. Petersburg southwards on Florida's west coast, and Melbourne southwards on Florida's east coast. The occasional coconut palm is seen north of these areas in favoured microclimates in the Tampa and Clearwater metro area and around Cape Canaveral, as well as the Orlando-Kissimmee-Daytona Beach metro area. They are also commonly found in Miami Beach, Florida, on South Beach. They may likewise be grown in favoured microclimates in the Rio Grande Valley area of Deep South Texas near Brownsville and on Galveston Island. They may reach fruiting maturity, but are damaged or killed by the occasional winter freezes in these areas. While coconut palms flourish in south Florida, unusually bitter cold snaps can kill or injure coconut palms there as well. Only the Florida Keys and the coastlines provide safe havens from the cold for growing coconut palms on the U.S. mainland.[citation needed]
The farthest north in the United States a coconut palm has been known to grow outdoors is in Newport Beach, California along the Pacific Coast Highway. For coconut palms to survive in Southern California, they need sandy soil and minimal water in the winter to prevent root rot, and would benefit from root heating coils.[citation needed]
The main coconut producing area in the Middle East is the Dhofar region of Oman. In particular, the area around Salalah maintains large coconut plantations similar to those found across the Arabian Sea. The large coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta in his writings, known as Al Rihla.[12] This is possible due to an annual rainy season known locally as Khareef.
Coconuts also are increasingly grown for decorative purposes along the coasts of the UAE and Saudi Arabia with the help of irrigation. The UAE have, however, imposed strict laws on mature coconut tree imports from other countries to reduce the spread of pests to other native palm trees, such as the date palm.[13]
Botanically the coconut (meaning the fruit) is a drupe, not a true nut[14]. Like other fruits it has three layers: exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp together make up the husk, and the mesocarp is composed of fibres called coir. Coconuts sold in the shops of non-tropical countries often have had the husk removed. The endocarp or shell is the hardest part of the coconut. The shell has three germination pores (stoma) or eyes that are clearly visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed.
Within the shell is a single seed. When the seed germinates, the root (radicle) of its embryo pushes out through one of the eyes of the shell. The outermost layer of the seed, the testa, adheres to the inside of the shell. In a mature coconut, a thick albuminous endosperm adheres to the inside of the testa. This endosperm or meat is the white and fleshy edible part of the coconut. Coconuts sold with a small portion of the husk cut away are immature, and contain coconut water rather than meat.
Although coconut meat contains less fat than many oilseeds and nuts such as almonds, it is noted for its high amount of medium-chain saturated fat.[15] About 90% of the fat found in coconut meat is saturated, a proportion exceeding that of foods such as lard, butter, and tallow. There has been some debate as to whether or not the saturated fat in coconuts is less unhealthy than other forms of saturated fat (see coconut oil). Coconut meat contains less sugar and more protein than popular fruits such as bananas, apples and oranges, and it is relatively high in minerals such as iron, phosphorus and zinc.
The endosperm surrounds a hollow interior space, filled with air and often a liquid referred to as coconut water (distinct from coconut milk). Young coconuts used for coconut water are called tender coconuts: when the coconut is still green, the endosperm inside is thin and tender, and is often eaten as a snack, but the main reason to pick the fruit at this stage is to drink its water. The water of a tender coconut is liquid endosperm. It is sweet (mild) with an aerated feel when cut fresh. Depending on its size a tender contains 300 to 1,000 ml of coconut water.
The meat in a young coconut is softer and more gelatinous than a mature coconut, so much so, that it is sometimes known as coconut jelly. When the coconut has ripened and the outer husk has turned brown, a few months later, it will fall from the palm of its own accord. At that time the endosperm has thickened and hardened, while the coconut water has become somewhat bitter.
When the coconut fruit is still green, the husk is very hard, but green coconuts only fall if they have been attacked by molds, etc. By the time the coconut naturally falls, the husk has become brown, the coir has become drier and softer, and the coconut is less likely to cause damage when it drops, although there have been instances of coconuts falling from palms and injuring people, and claims of some fatalities. This was the subject of a paper published in 1984 that won the Ig Nobel Prize in 2001. Falling coconut deaths are often used as a comparison to shark attacks; the claim is often made that a person is more likely to be killed by a falling coconut than by a shark, yet, there is no evidence of people ever being killed in this manner.[16]
When viewed on end, the endocarp and germination pores give the fruit the appearance of a coco (also Côca), a Portuguese word for a scary witch from Portuguese folklore, that used to be represented as a carved vegetable lantern, hence the name of the fruit.[17] The specific name nucifera is Latin for nut-bearing.
A small number of writings about coconut mention the existence of the coconut pearl due to the rarity of the gem.[18] Reginald[18] mentions in his book a few publishings whose author purposely avoided discussion about the vegetable-gem.
The shell composition is shown in the tables below.
Table-1 Table-2 Coconut shell compound(dry basis)
Compound Percent Cellulose 33.61 Lignin 36.51 Pentosans 29.27 Ash 0.61 Source: Jasper Guy Woodroof (1979). ``Coconuts: Production, Processing, Products``. 2nd ed. AVI Publishing Co. Inc. Coconut shell ash compound Compound Percent K2O 45.01 Na2O 15.42 CaO 6.26 MgO 1.32 Fe2O3 + Al2O3 1.39 P2O5 4.64 SO3 5.75 SiO2 4.64 Source: Jasper Guy Woodroof (1979). ``Coconuts: Production, Processing, Products``. 2nd ed. AVI Publishing Co. Inc.Unlike some other plants, the palm tree has neither tap root nor root hairs; but has a fibrous root system.[19]
On the same inflorescence, the palm produces both the female and male flowers; thus the palm is monoecious.[19]
The coconut palm yields up to 75 fruits per year[citation needed]. Nearly all parts of the palm are useful, and it has significant economic value.
The versatility of the coconut palm has given rise to names in many languages.In Sanskrit it is kalpa vriksha, which translates as ``the tree which provides all the necessities of life``. In the Malay language, the coconut is known as pokok seribu guna, ``the tree of a thousand uses``. In the Philippines, the coconut is commonly given the title ``Tree of Life``.[citation needed]
Coconut Flower and Kerala Marriage
Coconut flowers In Kerala in South India, coconut flowers must be present during a marriage ceremony. The flowers are inserted into a barrel of unhusked rice (paddy) and placed within the sight of the wedding ceremony. Those who visit the marriage in the Kerala State will be able to see and understand the importance given to the Coconut Flower.In Thailand, the coconut husk is used as a potting medium because of its cost-effectiveness to produce healthy forest tree saplings. The process of husk extraction from the coir bypasses the retting process, using a custom-built coconut husk extractor designed by ASEAN-Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre (ACFTSC) in 1986. Fresh husks contains more tannin than old husks. Tannin produces negative effects on sapling growth.[20]
In India, the coconut husk is used extensively in the manufacture of coir, which is subsequently used in the production of rope, as well as household products like door mats and sacks.[citation needed]
In India, coconut shells are used as bowls and in the manufacture of various crafts products. In certain parts of South India, the shell and husk also are burned for smoke to repel mosquitoes. Coconut shell is sometimes used to 'ward away the evil eye' in South India.
Culinary uses of the various parts of the palm include:
The nut provides oil for cooking and making margarine. The white, fleshy part of the seed, the coconut meat, is edible and used fresh or dried in cooking.Copra is the dried meat of the seed and, after further processing, is a source of low grade coconut oil. Coconut oils are used to make soap.
Plant densities in Vanuatu for copra production are generally 9 meter, allowing a tree density of 100–160 trees per hectare.
Researchers from the Melbourne Museum in Australia observed the octopus species Amphioctopus marginatus' use of tools, specifically coconut shells, for defense and shelter. The discovery of this behavior, observed in Bali and North Sulawesi in Indonesia between 1998 and 2008, was published in the journal Current Biology in December 2009.[25][26][27] Amphioctopus marginatus is the first invertebrate known to be able to use tools.[26][28]
A coconut can be hollowed out and used as a home for a rodent or small birds. Halved, drained coconuts can also be hung up as bird feeders, and after the flesh has gone, can be filled with fat in winter to attract tits.
